Consumer Affairs Victoria And Compensation â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Consumer Affairs Victoria Damages Compensation? Answer: Introduction: In Australian, liability related to the product is recognized by both common law and legislation. Any person who suffer damage, injury or loss then such person has right to initiate legal proceedings on following grounds: Under tort of negligence if duty of care breached. Under Australian consumer law, if any provision of ACL breached. In this report, terms related to product liability is discussed in the form of 3 questions which are answered below. Subsequently report is concluded with brief conclusion. Negligence: Usually, manufacturer of the product owns duty of care towards the ultimate consumer of the product for the purpose of protecting the consumer against any risk or injury which is foreseeable in nature. It is not allowed to retailers and importers to test the reliability of the product if it is supplied by the manufacturer in the container which is sealed pack. These sealed pack containers are directly opened by the ultimate consumers. However, it must be noted that if product cause damage or injury to the person then retailer also under obligation to safeguard the person from such risk and injury which is foreseeable in nature. If any party make in the supply chain make any modification in the product then such party is also liable towards the consumer in lieu of those changes. Contract: It must be noted there is no restriction on parties to enter into contract on the terms which are agreed between the parties, but there are some implied terms also which are imposed by Common law and statute. It must be noted only parties to the contract has right to seek remedies under the contract. In number of cases contracting parties are retailer and consumer, therefore retailer is liable towards the consumer if any implied condition or warranty is breached. However, retailer also enter into contract with manufacturer which means retailer has right to seek remedy from manufacturer. ACL introduced various statutory guarantees which can be considered as implied conditions and warranties under the contract. These guarantees exist in every contract which is entered between the consumer and retailer (Clayton UTZ, 2015). Statutory Guarantee: Following are some statutory guarantees introduced by the ACL under chapter 2 and 3, and under these guarantees manufacturer are directly liable towards the consumer: If goods are of unacceptable quality. Goods are not fit for the stated purpose. Goods do not match with their description. Manufacturer does not compile with existing warranties (ACCC, n.d.). This can be understood through case law Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] A.C. 562, [1932] UKHL 100. In this case, Mrs. Donoghue claims against the manufacturer off ginger beer under tort of negligence for breaching their duty of care. In this Court stated that manufacturer is liable towards the ultimate consumer because it is the consumer who ultimately consumes the product. In the present case, manufacturer of the product is liable towards Mr. George for failing to meet the statutory guarantees stated under ACL. Manufacturer fails to provide the product which meets the description and also product supplied by manufacturer fails to fit for stated purpose. Therefore, in this case manufacturer is liable towards the George. Consumer guarantee in Australia: Chapter 2 and 3 of ACL sates the guarantee provided to consumer by common law and statute. If any person buy product under ACL then such person automatically get the protection under consumer statutory guarantee. Following are some statutory guarantees provided by ACL: Section 59 of Competition and Consumer Act 2010 states that manufacturer and supplier of product and services are under obligation to meet any express warranty stated by manufacturer at the time of formation of contract. In other words, if manufacturer at the time of formation of contract made any promise related to the quality, standard, condition, and performance of contract then it is necessary that manufacturer fulfill such promises. These promises are considered as express warranty of the contract. This can be understood through case law Norman Enterprises Pty Ltd t/as Leimo Australia v Deng [2013] QCATA 047. In this case, Tribunal stated that money back guarantee provided by seller is considered as express warranty (Competition and Consumer Act 2010). Section 60 of the ACL states that it is the duty of manufacturer and supplier to perform their functions and render their services with due care skill. In other words, manufacturers are obliged to ensure reasonable care and skill while manufacturing any product and perform the services (Competition and Consumer Act 2010). Section 61 of competition and Consumer Act 2010 states that it is the duty of manufacturer and supplier to ensure that goods delivered by them and services rendered by them fit for the purpose stated. In other words, if consumer stated any particular purpose at the time of formation of contract then manufacturer and supplier is under obligation to ensure that goods must meet that particular purpose or desired result of the consumer (Competition and Consumer Act 2010). This can be understood through case law Campbell v Lane (No 2), [2013] QCATA 307. In this case Court stated that horse was so lame that it was not fit for disclosed purpose. If any manufacturer and supplier breach above stated liability, then following rights are available to consumer: Consumer can terminate the contract on the ground of breach of statutory guarantee. Consumer can ask for refund for any services not consumed by consumer. Consumer can claim for compensation for the difference occurred in desired result and actual result. In the present case, Newman and manufacturer breach number of statutory guarantee available to George under ACL. Newman breach guarantee under section 59, 60, and 61 as he fails to meet the express warranties at the time of formation of contract. He further fails to perform his duties with due care and skill. Therefore, Newman is liable towards George under ACL. George has right to seek compensation under ACL or terminate the contract. However, Newman also failed to provide goods which fit for disclosed purpose. Therefore, both manufacturer and Newman are liable under section 61 of ACL. George can also seek for compensation under this section also. Compensation for breach of statutory guarantees under ACL: As stated above, consumer has right to recover damages from manufacturer for breaching the consumer guarantees stated under Australian Consumer law. However, manufacturer is liable in following circumstances towards the consumer: If goods does not fit for stated purpose. Breach of express warranty. Goods or services fail to match description. Repair and spare parts. Therefore, it is necessary for manufacturer to honor the rights of the consumer under consumer guarantee. If any manufacturer and supplier breach above stated liability, then following rights are available to consumer: Consumer can terminate the contract on the ground of breach of statutory guarantee. Consumer can ask for refund for any services not consumed by consumer. Consumer can claim for compensation for the difference occurred in desired result and actual result. Amount of compensation: Manufacturer is liable to pay compensation, and amount of compensation is determined through analyzing the amount of goods and services and loss or injury suffered by consumer. Amount of compensation must be equal to the value of product or less than the difference between current value of product and it can be the lowest of either: Retail price of the goods at the time of purchase. Actual price paid by consumer. Compensation in case of express warranty: If manufacturer does not meet with the express warranty and fail to meet the express warranty within reasonable time period then consumer has right to take legal action against the manufacturer for the purpose of enforcing the warranty in Court or Tribunal. Consumer also has right to enforce their rights under consumer guarantee and claim for compensation for consequential loss because of manufacturers failure to meet the warranty. In the present case, George can ask for money refund that is $550 under the express guarantee because consumer has right to enforce their rights under consumer guarantee and George can also claim for compensation because manufacturer fail to meet its liability (Consumer affairs Victoria, n.d.). Conclusion: After considering above facts, it is clear that ACL protect the rights of consumer and ensures fair dealings in Australia. In this report various statutory guarantees are stated such as guarantee related to acceptable quality, express warranty, etc. Lastly, it is concluded that ACL provides various rights to the consumer. References: ACCC. Consumer guarantees. Retrieved on 23rd September 2017 from: https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/consumer-rights-guarantees/consumer-guarantees. ACL. Consumer Guarantees. Retrieved on 23rd September 2017 from: https://consumerlaw-staging.tspace.gov.au/files/2016/05/0553FT_ACL-guides_Guarantees_web.pdf. Campbell v Lane (No 2), [2013] QCATA 307. Clayton UTZ, (2015). Product Liability 2015. Retrieved on 23rd September 2017 from: https://www.claytonutz.com/articledocuments/178/ICLG-Product-Liability-Australia-2015.pdf.aspx?Embed=Y. Competition and Consumer Act 2010- Schedule 2- Section 59. Competition and Consumer Act 2010- Schedule 2- Section 60. Competition and Consumer Act 2010- Schedule 2- Section 61. Consumer Affairs Victoria. Damages and compensation. Retrieved on 23rd September 2017 from: https://www.consumer.vic.gov.au/products-and-services/refunds-repairs-and-returns/damages-and-compensation. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] A.C. 562, [1932] UKHL 100. Norman Enterprises Pty Ltd t/as Leimo Australia v Deng [2013] QCA

New SAT Essay Sample Response - Save Time With This Essay Topic Sample Response

New SAT Essay Sample Response - Save Time With This Essay Topic Sample ResponseWhen you are writing your New SAT essay, you have to be aware of all the points and subtleties in the essay that can get your best score. But, what happens if you do not have enough time to finish it before the deadline of March 1st? You can make use of the New SAT essay sample response to help you in this regard.By using a New SAT essay sample response, you can save time and effort and still get your best score. Moreover, they are very useful to students because they do not cost much and you can get them from the internet as well.The first thing that you need to do when you start writing an essay for the SAT is to pick a topic. Here, the topic can be a bit tricky. You can choose a topic that is already present in the current culture and society or which is a type of topic that you have always wanted to write about. There are also some essay topics that students write about that can be used by you as well. In order to choose the best essay topic for the SAT, you should gather information from various sources. One of the sources that you can use is the internet. There are several sites that give you great tips and advice that can help you choose the right topic for your essay.The last thing that you need to do when you are writing your essay for the SAT is to make sure that you do not omit any information. It can also help you if you check if you have any spelling and grammar mistakes on your paper. Do not forget to check your sources.Finally, be sure that you know the format of your essay. To do this, you will need to check out the essay sample response you have done, and try to follow it exactly. So, when you are writing your essay for the SAT, try to find out as much information about the topic and make sure that you do not omit any information. Also, make sure that you check your sources and follow the essay sample response to write the best essay.

Hinayan and Mahayn Essay Example

Hinayan and Mahayn Essay Introductory Comparison of Hinayana and Mahayana Alexander Berzin Berlin, Germany, January 2002 [edited transcript] The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana The terms Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle or Modest Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle or Vast Vehicle) originated in The Prajnaparamita Sutras (The Sutras on Far-Reaching Discriminating Awareness, The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras). They are a rather derogatory pair of words, aggrandizing Mahayana and putting down Hinayana. Alternative terms for them, however, have many other shortcomings, and so therefore I shall use these more standard terms for them here. See: The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana. ] Hinayana encompasses eighteen schools. The most important for our purposes are Sarvastivada and Theravada. Theravada is the one extant today in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Sarvastivada was widespread in Northern India when the Tibetans started to travel there and Buddhism began to be transplanted to Tibet. There were two main divisions of Sarvasti vada based on philosophical differences: Vaibhashika and Sautrantika. Hinayana tenet systems studied at the Indian monastic universities such as Nalanda, and later by the Tibetan Mahayanists, are from these two schools. The lineage of monastic vows followed in Tibet is from another Sarvastivada subdivision, Mulasarvastivada. [See: A Brief History of Buddhism in India before the Thirteenth-Century Invasions. ] Buddhas and Arhats There is quite a significant difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana presentations of arhats and Buddhas. Both agree that arhats, or liberated beings, are more limited than Buddhas, or enlightened beings, are. Mahayana formulates this difference in terms of two sets of obscurations: the emotional ones, which prevent liberation, and the cognitive ones, which prevent omniscience. Arhats are free of only the former, whereas Buddhas are free of both. This division is not found in Hinayana. It is purely a Mahayana formulation. To gain liberation or enlightenment, both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that one needs nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul. † Such a lack is often called â€Å" selflessness,† anatma in Sanskrit, the main Indian scriptural language of Sarvastivada and Mahayana; anatta in Pali, the scriptural language of Theravada. We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The Hinayana schools assert this lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect only to persons, not all phenomena. Persons lack a â€Å"soul,† an atman, that is unaffected by anything, partless, and separable from a body and a mind, and which can be cognized on its own. Such a â€Å"soul† is impossible. With just the understanding that there is no such thing as this type of â€Å"soul† with respect to persons, one can become either an arhat or a Buddha. The difference depends on how much positive force or so-called â€Å" merit† one builds up. Because of their development of the enlightening aim of bodhichitta, Buddhas have built up far more positive force than arhats have. Mahayana asserts that Buddhas understand the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect to all phenomena as well as with respect to persons. They call this lack â€Å"voidness. † The various Indian schools of Mahayana differ regarding whether or not arhats also understand the voidness of phenomena. Within Mahayana, Prasangika Madhyamaka asserts that they do. However, the four Tibetan traditions explain this point differently regarding the Prasangika assertion. Some say that the voidness of phenomena understood by arhats is different from that understood by Buddhas; some assert the two voidnesses are the same. Some say that the scope of phenomena to which the voidness of phenomena applies is more limited for arhats than it is for Buddhas; some assert it is the same. There is no need to go into all the details here. [See: Comparison of the Hinayana and Mahayana Assertions of the Understandings of Voidness by Arhats and Buddhas. ] Further Points Concerning Buddhas and Arhats The assertions of Hinayana and Mahayana concerning arhats and Buddhas differ in many other ways. Theravada, for instance, asserts that one of the differences between a shravaka or â€Å"listener† striving toward the liberation of an arhat and a bodhisattva striving toward the enlightenment of a Buddha is that shravakas study with Buddhist teachers, while bodhisattvas do not. The historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, for instance, did not study with another Buddha. He studied only with non-Buddhist teachers, whose methods he ultimately rejected. In the fact that Buddha’s understanding and attainment id not arise from reliance on a Buddhist teacher, Theravada asserts that a Buddha’s wisdom surpasses that of an arhat. In addition, bodhisattvas work to become universal Buddhist teachers; shravakas do not, although as arhats they certainly teach disciples. Before passing away, Buddha himself deputed his arhat disciple Shariputra to continue â€Å"turning the wheel of Dharma . † According to Theravada, however, Buddhas excel arhats in being more skillful in methods for leading others to liberation and in the breadth of their conduct of teaching. This is the meaning of a Buddha’s being omniscient. However, according to this presentation, a Buddha would not know everyone’s address and would have to ask such information from others. According to the Vaibhashika school of Hinayana, Buddhas are actually omniscient in knowing such information, but they only know one thing at a time. According to Mahayana, omniscience means knowing everything simultaneously. This follows from its view that everything is interconnected and interdependent; we cannot speak of just one piece of information, totally unrelated to the rest. Hinayana says that the historical Buddha achieved enlightenment in his lifetime and, like an arhat, when he died, his mental continuum came to an end. Therefore, according to Hinayana, Buddhas teach only for the rest of the lifetime in which they achieve enlightenment. They do not emanate to countless world systems and go on teaching forever, as Mahayana asserts. Only Mahayana asserts that the historical Buddha became enlightened in a previous lifetime many eons ago, by studying with Buddhist teachers. He was just demonstrated enlightenment under the bodhi tree as one of the twelve enlightening deeds of a Buddha. The precursor of this description of a Buddha is found in the Mahasanghika School of Hinayana, another of the eighteen Hinayana schools, but is not found in either Sarvastivada or Theravada. [See: The Twelve Enlightening Deeds of a Buddha. ] Concerning Buddhas, another major difference is that only Mahayana asserts the three corpuses or bodies of a Buddha – Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya. Hinayana does not assert them. Thus, the concept of a Buddha is significantly different in Hinayana and Mahayana. [See: Identifying the Objects of Safe Direction (Refuge). The Pathway Minds Leading to Liberation and Enlightenment Hinayana and Mahayana both assert that the stages of progress to the purified state, or â€Å"bodhi,† of either an arhat or a Buddha entail developing five levels of pathway mind – the so-called â€Å"five paths. † These are a building-up pathway mind or path of accumulation, an applying pathway mind or path of preparation, a seeing pa thway mind or path of seeing, an accustoming pathway mind or path of meditation, and a path needing no further training or path of no more learning. Shravakas and bodhisattvas who attain a seeing pathway of mind both become aryas, highly realized beings. Both have nonconceptual cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths. [See: The Five Pathway Minds: Basic Presentation. See also: The Sixteen Aspects and the Sixteen Distorted Ways of Embracing the Four Noble Truths. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that a seeing pathway mind rids both arya shravakas and arya bodhisattvas of doctrinally based disturbing emotions, while an accustoming pathway mind rids them of automatically arising disturbing emotions. The former are based on learning the set of assertions of one of the non-Buddhist Indian schools, while the latter arise automatically in everyone, including animals. The list of disturbing emotions that shravaka and bodhisattva aryas rid themselves of is part of a larger list of mental factors. Each of the Hinayana schools has its own list of mental factors, while Mahayana asserts yet another list. Many of the mental factors are defined differently in each list. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that the course of progressing through the five pathway minds entails practicing the thirty-seven factors leading to a purified state. A â€Å"purified state† or â€Å" bodhi† refers to either arhatship or Buddhahood. These thirty-seven factors include the four close placements of mindfulness, the eight branches of an arya pathway mind (the eightfold noble path), and so on. They are very important. In anuttarayoga tantra, the thrity-seven are represented by Yamantaka’s thirty-four arms plus his body, speech and mind, as well as by the dakinis in the body mandala of Vajrayogini. The thirty-seven are a standard set of practices. The specifics of each practice, however, are often different in Hinayana and Mahayana. See: The Theravada Practice of the Four Close Placements of Mindfulness. See also: The Four Close Placements of Mindfulness According to Mahayana. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that the scheme of stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner and arhat refers to stages of an arya shravaka’s path, but not to the path of an arya bodhisattva. Thus, stream-enterers have nonconceptu al cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths, which include nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† of persons. We should not think that stream-enterer is a beginner level. So if someone claims to have achieved the state of a stream-enterer, be suspicious. Hinayana does not provide an extensive explanation of the bodhisattva pathway minds. Mahayana, however, explains that an arya bodhisattva’s path to enlightenment entails progressing through the development of ten levels of bhumi-mind. These levels of mind do not pertain to the path of shravakas. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that traversing the bodhisattva path to enlightenment takes more time than traversing the shravaka one to arhatship. Only Mahayana, however, speaks of building up the two enlightenment-building networks – the two collections – for three zillion eons. â€Å" Zillion,† usually translated as â€Å"countless,† means a finite number, though we would be unable to count it. Shravakas, on the other hand, can attain arhatship in as short as three lifetimes. In the first lifetime, one becomes a stream-enterer, in the next lifetime a once-returner, and in the third lifetime, one becomes a non-returner, achieves liberation, and becomes an arhat. This is quite tempting for many people. The assertion that arhats are selfish is like bodhisattva propaganda. It is basically meant to point out an extreme to avoid. The sutras record that Buddha asked his sixty arhat disciples to teach. If they were truly selfish, they would not have agreed to do so. Arhats, however, can only help others to a more limited extent than Buddhas can. Both, however, can only help those with the karma to be helped by them. Bodhisattvas It is important to realize that the Hinayana schools do assert that before becoming a Buddha, one follows the bodhisattva path. Both Hinayana and Mahayana have versions of the Jataka tales describing the previous lives of Buddha Shakyamuni as a bodhisattva. Starting with King Siri Sanghabodhi in the third century CE, many Sri Lankan kings even called themselves bodhisattvas. Of course, this is a little tricky to untangle because there was some Mahayana present in Sri Lanka at the time. Whether this idea of bodhisattva kings preexisted a Mahayana influence is hard to say, but it did happen. Even more surprisingly, in the fifth century CE, the elders at the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura declared Buddhaghosa, a great Theravada Abhidharma master, to be an incarnation of the bodhisattva Maitreya. Mahayana asserts that there are a thousand Buddhas in this â€Å"fortunate eon† who will start universal religions, and there have been and will be many more Buddhas in other world ages. Mahayana also asserts that everyone can become a Buddha, because everyone has the Buddha-nature factors that enable this attainment. Hinayana does not discuss Buddha-nature. Nevertheless, Theravada does mention hundreds of Buddhas of the past. One Theravada sutta even lists twenty-seven by name. All of them were bodhisattvas before becoming Buddhas. Theravada asserts that there will be innumerable Buddhas in the future as well, including Maitreya as the next one, and that anyone can become a Buddha if they practice the ten far-reaching attitudes. The Ten Far-Reaching Attitudes Mahayana says that the ten far-reaching attitudes are practiced only by bodhisattvas and not by shravakas. This is because Mahayana defines a far-reaching attitude or â€Å"perfection† as one that is held by the force of a bodhichitta aim. According to Theravada, however, so long as the ten attitudes are held by the force of renunciation, the determination to be free, bodhichitta is not necessary for their practice to be far-reaching and act as a cause for liberation. Thus, Theravada asserts that both bodhisattvas and shravakas practice ten far-reaching attitudes. Aside from the different motivating aims behind them, the other main difference between a bodhisattva’s and a shravaka’s practice of the ten is the degree of their intensity. Thus, each of the ten far-reaching attitudes has three stages or degrees: ordinary, medium, and highest. For example, the highest practice of generosity would be giving one’s body to feed a hungry tigress, as Buddha did in a previous life as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten far-reaching attitudes also differs slightly in Theravada and Mahayana. The Mahayana list is: * generosity * ethical self-discipline * patience * joyful perseverance * mental stability * discriminating awareness * skill in means

Confucius Essays

Confucius Essays Confucius Paper Confucius Paper They have distinctly different beliefs. Confucianism was developed by a Chinese philosopher named KÂ ¶Eng FUzi (551- 479 BCC), also known as Confucius. He was a knowledgeable man who thought about how people should live, how righteousness (Lie) can be achieved and how the society or government should be structured. The Analects of Confucius explains how men can become a gentlemen. If a man follows the rules of Confucius and completes all his duties of his status, he could influence others In society to be honorable, hardworking, honest, and just. A gentleman said, Feels bad when his capableness fall short of the task. He does not feel bad when people fall to recognize him (15. 18). A gentlemen Is different because he does not care about personal gains; his Integrity Is more Important. He never stated whether humans were born evil or good, he did however say that humanity shared the same qualities. They all have the ability to be conditioned through studying and practicing. During the warring states period, Han Fizz (280-233 BC) and Shank Yang (390-338 BC) wanted people to follow a philosophy that could strengthen the government and to create laws that are firmer. Legalism may have originated from Zinc (312-230 SC), a student of Confucius. He believed that all men were born evil and their natural self-interest dominates them the moment they are born, the desire for love, wealth, and power causes people to conduct impulsive actions. Legalism has a set of rules and if they are broken, there will be consequences and punishments. This related to the First Emperor Sin Slashing Dells book burning. The three elements of a proper government based on legalists are power and position (SSL), administrative techniques and methods (Chub ND comprehensive systems of law (FAA). Confucius and Legalism did not preach an afterlife, so if one needed mental support Confucius would tell them to rely on books and knowledge for comfort and Han Fee-Uzi would tell one to be diligent with work. According to a Confucianism, a ruler has to be worthy in order for his subjects to obey him. In the Emperor Tagging on Effective Government it wrote, When a ruler looks as lofty and firm as a mountain peak People will admire and respect him (112). The government was created to assist the people. In a legalists perspective, the overspent comes before anything else and the people are there to serve the government. Legalism believes one should prepare for war and contribute In physical labor, but Confucianism believes life should be centered more on education and advancing your talking to promote better living styles. In East Asia: a Cultural, Social, and Political History It says, Ruler should promote worthy and capable, Lossless ten Incompetent, Ana puns ten evil (2 Legally TTS Delve Tanat violence and abuse can control the people while Confucianism believe that an educated ruler can regulate the people. They both have different views on ruling the government and how rulers should act. Confucius precepts and standards gained new currency in the Han Empire. However, administrators appeared to have accepted the philosophy of Legalism without openly promoting it. A reason why the Han dynasty lasted for more than 400 years is because the Han emperors implemented a combination of legalism and Confucianism called imperial Confucianism. This ideology helps provide a leader who does not execute his power through violence. Instead, a ruler needs to be progressive and set a moral example in order for other to embrace his leadership. The imperial examinations were tests on the Confucian classics to select officials for the state bureaucracy. His officials had to have knowledge and the government had a mix of Confucianism and Legalism. The stem to all the chaos was to incorporate the practices and other philosophies from the golden age. The altercation would bring unity to the people and would become fruitful to the government. Despite the difference between Legalism and Confucianism, it was an intelligent idea for the Han Dynasty to utilize them together to promote a successful government for 400 years.

Incidents that have had major economic impacts Coursework

Incidents that have had major economic impacts - Coursework Example The attack had dire consequences on both aggregate demand (AD) and aggregate supply (AS) of goods and services. Closure of the stock market and travel advisories both within and outside the country cut business activities leading to a drop in the GDP. AD curve shifted to the right giving rise to prices that ultimately leads to expected future inflation. At this point, aggregate supply shifts to the left in the short run until GDP surpasses its long-term average. The attack prompted the country to launch one of its greatest expenditure programs on September 20, 2001 after President Bush declared war on terror. Operations in Afghanistan would cost the treasury massive amounts in expenditure. According to Carter and Cox, 2011, the government spent an estimated $3.3 trillion in response to the threat. America invested extensively on the Department of Defense (DOD) and operations of the newly created homeland security department. The federal government channeled funds to the defense spending both in Afghanistan and homeland security surveillance including intelligence details (Makinen, 2011). High expenditure by the DOD and homeland security initiated a debt crisis in the country. The amount of funds usable in driving stimulus programs in the country reduced with the increase of expenditure on security. High debt levels experienced in America because of increased expenditure after 9/11 were among the forces that prompted the 2008 crisis. Limited Medicare benefits caused a downgrading of the country’s debt. Fiscal policy affected interest rates, government expenditure strategy and tax rates. The US government, therefore, used borrowing from the federal government to help restore the adversely affected airline sector. America used automatic in-built stabilizer to restore its economy after the incidence. Corporations received tax relief that enabled them to acquire funds to help rebuild the country’s

Human Right to a Safe Environment & Planetary Rights Essay

Human Right to a Safe Environment & Planetary Rights - Essay Example This can be explained within the concept of planetary rights, which suggests that the current generation needs to work together to ensure the interests of future generations. Protecting the planet for the future is more than a charitable goal, if we do not do so we are violating the rights of future generations. The environment is directly influenced by the collective action of humankind, giving mankind the ability to improve, keep constant or degrade the environment. This means that regardless of intent, the actions that occur in the present have an impact on future generations, forming a relationship between the two groups of people that are distanced by time. This relationship means that humankind cannot argue that future generations are arbitrary, because both action and non-action will impact them. Take for example the notion of power plants. A power plant causes considerable pollution to the air around it and the atmosphere. Furthermore, it can also be the source of polluted wa ter downstream. These factors influence the current generation, but can also have long-standing impacts on the environment for the future. Who is it that creates these effects? Directly, it is the company or person involved in the pollution, but this is not a fair assessment. The pollution from power plants and technology throughout the globe comes from a consumption driven society that demands convenience and large amount of electricity (Hiskes 1352-1353). As such, the collective behavior of humans as a race is destroying the environment, and this creates the responsibility to attempt to minimize this damage for the generations that will follow us. Arguments often consider that an environmental or planetary approach cannot effectively fall within rights language, as the language itself implies certain legalisms. Nevertheless, environmental rights is a realistic and plausible use of rights language that passes justificatory tests. The term rights is often used within environmental r hetoric and political statements so often that it risks losing its meaning. Yet, the right to a safe environment is more than rhetoric, and is distinct from other applications of the phrase within environmentalism. The right for a safe environment is focused on humans, and does not consider the rights of organisms or of the planet itself, and this gives the term legitimacy (Nickel 282-283). However, steps are involved to move environmental rights away from being broad concept that is mostly rhetoric based and into a defined and practicable right. One of these aspects is to narrowly define what is meant by the term. For example, what does the right to a safe environment mean? This depends on how the word safe is defined. Safe could mean that there is no crime, that the air is breathable or that the level of diversity is close to what it was for the previous generation. One definition is that the environment provides safety from environmental risks. However, this term also needs defin ing, as there needs to be a determination of what is considered to be safe and what the ranges are (Nickel 284-285). This shows that there is the potential for the right to a safe environment to be defined in narrow terms to ensure that it can effectively be treated as a right, and that it is not an arbitrary phrase used in

Benefits of Nanotechnology on Health and the Environment

Benefits of Nanotechnology on Health and the Environment Aleksandar Banic Abstract Nanotechnology is concerned with manipulating matter to near atomic scales between one and 100nm (nanometers-1 billionth of a meter). This technology has recently gained popularity due to its potential in altering the behaviour of individual molecules and has opened the door to new applications. Many researchers have pinpointed the potential risk of nanotechnology on the environment and on human health. This is due to the fact that the extremely small nanoparticles can penetrate into human cells. This paper aims at determining ways in which this new technology can benefit the environment and the state of people’s health. Typical expectations of functional paints and coatings include: durability, reproducibility, easy application and cost effectiveness, tailored surface morphology and environmental friendliness. Through the use of nanotechnology, these properties can be achieved; therefore inflicting less environmental damage and cost. Discussion As shown in figure 1 (refer to appendix), the list of benefits for paints containing nanoparticles is extensive. It is also apparent that nano titanium dioxide (TiO2) is one of the most common nanoparticles in both the paint and lacquer industries. The primary reason for this is its ability to make the paint more durable (refer to figure 2 for following references). The wavelength of the visible light spectrum ranges between 400 and 700nm, whereas TiO2 is much shorter (200-350nm). This property renders the coating transparent and more aesthetically pleasing whilst also allowing UV absorption smaller wavelength means more energy. Therefore, when moving from left to right in figure 2, the different types of radiation become increasingly destructive. During UV radiation, UV photons can cause ionization, where electrons break away from atoms and this vacancy affects chemical properties. As a result, the paint could begin to flake, otherwise known as ‘chalking’ where it is th en washed away into the environment (1)(2)(3). Nano TiO2 coating serves to prevent this and is therefore considered to be an advantage to the environment. As durability is increased, the longevity of the paint does likewise and therefore, the rate of production is lowered. This means that energy and resource outputs are decreased, thus benefiting the environment once more. Figure 2: electromagnetic spectrum image displaying frequency and wavelength. Also highlights visible spectrum (3) One of the most advantageous characteristics of nanoparticle paints and coatings is their self-cleansing property. Nano scale titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most often employed nanoparticle that exhibits this property. As TiO2 is photo catalytic, when illuminated with an ultraviolet (UV) source (e.g. sunlight) in the presence of water, valence electrons are transferred into the conduction band of TiO2 and then react with oxygen. Super oxide radicals result. These photo-produced radicals are powerful oxidizing species and can cause the deterioration of organic contaminants or microbial pieces on the particle surface. Furthermore, nano TiO2 is super-hydrophilic, i.e. the entire surface attracts and spreads water out into a thin film (4). Therefore, water and rainfall easily wash away contaminants when the coating is applied on an exterior surface. Figure 3: Hydrophilic coating (right) with TiO2on float glass for comparative purposes. Notice how right side is spread out thinly to cover as much surface as possible. This allows for a more consistent cleaning (4). Self-cleaning surfaces can decrease the amount of cleaning required. In the case of industrial cleaning in particular it can reduce labour costs and extend a materials durability. Lower energy costs and less use of cleaning detergents are expected to be the primary environmental benefits (5). In fact, nano TiO2 was proven to achieve the following: Reduction in re-paint material consumption by over 75% Reduction in labour and energy costs by 50% In summary, the photo catalytic and hydrophilic features of nano T (Environmental Protection Agency , 2015)iO2 result in the benefit of self-cleaning. When compared to that of standard paints, this is also beneficial to the environment whilst also being more cost effective. In addition, paints coated in nano TiO2 have also managed to reduce surface pollution. Paint which photocleans the air of automobile-produced nitrogen oxides (NOx) is currently under heavy promotion. NOx are formed during the combustion process when nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) are present at elevated temperatures. They also serve as key precursors for ozone and this can lead to numerous health effects as outlined in the figure below. Figure 4: The relationship between the severity of the effect and the proportion of the population experiencing the effect can be presented as a pyramid. Many individuals experience the least serious, most common effects shown at the bottom. Fewer individuals experience the more severe effects such as hospitalization or death; however, they are still possibilities especially after prior health issues or prolonged exposure (6). In the presence of sunlight, TiO2 nanoparticles in the paint, form hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals, which then react with NOx in the air to produce nitric acid. This reacts further with calcium carbonate in the paint matrix to generate minute quantities of calcium nitrate, water, and carbon dioxide (CO2). Calcium nitrate is especially useful as a fertilizer; therefore it is not harmful to the environment. And although CO2 is considered a greenhouse gas, it is nontoxic (7)(8). Figure 5: graph compares the surface area covered by anatase (one of the three forms of TiO2) to the % of NOx removed from that vicinity. Eventually it will plateau as the production of NOx will be no longer be able to reduce by more than is being created (7) In an experiment, a 4,100m2 wall was subjected to paint containing TiO2 nanoparticles. Results showed that each square meter could remove 80g of NOx from the atmosphere per year. Furthermore, NOx levels in the vicinity of the wall were compared to that of other areas of the city and a 57% decrease was found. It can be concluded from this information that health effects would also be lowered proportionally (8). As the effects of nano TiO2 particles in paint are evidently advantageous, it supports the statement that in general, the positives of nanoparticles outweigh the negatives. If nanoparticles are firmly imbedded within a coating matrix, current risk assessments conclude that the probability of a harmful impact on the environment is very low. However, nanoparticles may be released as a result of weathering on the coating matrix. An investigation conducted in 2010, has shown that very small amounts of TiO2 (between 20 and 300nm in size) are released by house paints due to weathering. They can then enter the soil via rainwater drains. As stated previously, the photocatalytic activities of TiO2 are able to produce oxygen radicals. They are in fact toxic for aquatic organisms. However, the release of nanoparticles into the environment can be reduced or prevented if nanomaterials and coatings are designed accordingly. Regardless of the fact that surface coatings which contain firmly embedded nanoparticles currently pose a minute risk to the health of users and consumers, special attention is required for those that manufacture nanoparticulate raw materials. (4) (9) (Chang)Nevertheless, there are currently no known long-term health effects as a result of nanoparticle paint, and the short-term effects are easily reduced or prevented when safety measures are taken accordingly. Although possible health and environmental effects may exist, they are unsupported and easily outweighed by the positives of nanoparticle paints. Conclusion Several advantages for nanoparticles used in paint and lacquer have been focused on throughout this paper. Although many more are possible as outlined in figure 1 (appendix), it is evident from the properties of UV absorption, self-cleansing and NOx reduction alone, that it overcomes the unfounded negative impacts. In fact, the only undesirable aspect is the danger that nanoparticles could inflict upon the appliers and manufacturers. However, there is very little supporting evidence and can therefore not be used as a counter argument for the use of nanoparticle paints. It is important that the public understands how beneficial this technology is they would be doing themselves and the environment a great disservice. Bibliography Wick, P. (2012). Nanoparticles in paints: A new strategy to protect faà §ades and surfaces? . International Conferences on Safe Production and Use of Nanomaterials , 10. Popov, A. (2008). TiO2 NANOPARTICLES AS UV PROTECTORS. UNIVERSITATIS OULUENSIS. OULUN YLIOPISTO. New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Electromagnetic Spectrum. Retrieved May 4, 2015, from New World Encyclopedia: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Electromagnetic_spectrum Nanotechnology solutions for self-cleaning, dirt and water-repellent coatings . (2011, January 11). Retrieved May 4, 2015, from Nano Werk: http://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=19644.php Environmental Protection Agency . (2015, January 31). Health Effects of Ozone in the General Population. Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Ozone and Your Patients Health Training for Health Care Providers: http://www.epa.gov/apti/ozonehealth/population.html Dalton, J. (2002). Photocatalytic oxidation of NOx gases using TiO2: a surface spectroscopic approach. Elsevier . Bendak, S. (2010). Potential Environmental and Health Benefits of Nanotechnology. Journal of Materials Science and Engineering , 4 (1), 2. Joseph, R. (2011). Nanotechnology-A New Prospective in Organic Coating Review. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applications , 2 (4). Chang, X. Health effects of exposure to nano-TiO2: a meta-analysis of experimental studies. Nanjing : Springer . Appendix Figure 1: above table states the various advantages of nanoparticle paints and coatings along with their respective nanomaterial and industrial branch (1) Bibliography (Popov, 2008) (New World Encyclopedia) (Nanotechnology solutions for self-cleaning, dirt and water-repellent coatings Read more: Nanotechnology solutions for self-cleaning, dirt and water-repellent coatings , 2011) (Wick, 2012)